Spaceborne LiDAR reveals 3D structural differences between natural forests and tree plantations in China

doi:10.1093/jpe/rtag008

J Plant Ecol ›› 2026, Vol. 19 ›› Issue (4): rtag008.DOI: 10.1093/jpe/rtag008

• Special Issue: Digital Ecology: integrating AI and big data for ecosystem monitoring and management • Next Articles

Spaceborne LiDAR reveals 3D structural differences between natural forests and tree plantations in China

Hao Bai^1,†, Asadilla Yusup^1,†, Yanpei Guo², Kai Cheng³, Xiuzhi Chen⁴, Jing Liu^5,6, Shengli Tao^1,*

1 Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, and State Key Laboratory of Vegetation Structure, Function and Construction (VegLab), Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
2 School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China;
3 Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
4 School of Atmospheric Sciences, Guangdong Province Data Center of Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems Carbon Cycle, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 510245, China;
5 Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Nanjing 210023, China;
6 Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing 210023, China
^*Corresponding author. E-mail: sltao@pku.edu.cn
^†These authors contributed equally to this work.

Received:2025-12-15 Accepted:2025-12-19

基于星载激光雷达评估中国天然林与人工林的三维结构差异

Abstract

Abstract: Tree planting has been widely implemented worldwide to restore forest area and ecosystem services. While China has become the world’s largest country in terms of planted tree area, it remains unclear whether these tree plantations approximate the close-to-nature 3D structures that are critical for supporting ecosystem services. Using Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) data, in combination with linear mixed model analysis, this study for the first time provided a national-scale assessment of the difference in 3D structure between natural forests and tree plantations in China. We found that natural forests outperform tree plantations in canopy height (ΔRH98 = 0.58 m), foliage height diversity (ΔFHD = 0.06), plant area index (ΔPAI = 0.22), and canopy cover (ΔCover = 0.04). These differences vary across vegetation regions, with the largest ΔRH98, ΔPAI and ΔCover in the Warm Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forest Region, whereas the largest ΔFHD was found in the Cold Temperate Coniferous Forest Region. Linear mixed modeling further revealed that ΔPAI and ΔCover decreased under more favorable hydrothermal conditions. Our study revealed structural differences between China’s natural forests and tree plantations, highlighting the importance of selecting suitable sites with favorable environmental conditions for tree plantations and promoting close-to-nature management practice to support their ecosystem services.

Based on observations from the spaceborne LiDAR (GEDI), this study demonstrates that tree plantations in China exhibit lower values than natural forests in four 3D structural attributes, including canopy height, plant area index, foliage height diversity, and canopy cover, highlighting the importance of prioritizing forest restoration in favorable environment conditions and adopting close-to-nature restoration approaches to enhance forest structure and better support ecosystem services.

Key words: remote sensing, LiDAR, GEDI, tree planting, canopy structure, forest height, GEDI

摘要：
植树造林是恢复森林面积和提升森林生态系统服务的重要手段，在全球范围内得到了广泛应用。尽管中国已成为全球人工造林面积最大的国家，但目前仍不清楚这些人工林能否形成近天然林并支撑生态系统服务功能的三维结构特征。本研究基于GEDI星载激光雷达数据，结合线性混合模型，首次系统评估了我国天然林与人工林三维结构特征的差异。结果表明，天然林在冠层高度(ΔRH98 = 0.58 m)、叶高多样性(ΔFHD = 0.06)、植物面积指数(ΔPAI = 0.22)和冠层覆盖度(ΔCover = 0.04)等结构指标上均高于人工林。这些结构差异在不同植被区域间存在明显空间异质性，其中暖温带落叶阔叶林区域的ΔRH98、ΔPAI和ΔCover 最大，而ΔFHD的最大值出现在寒温带针叶林区域。线性混合模型进一步表明，在水热条件更为有利的区域，ΔPAI和ΔCover呈下降趋势。本研究揭示了中国天然林与人工林在三维结构上的系统性差异，强调在人工林建设过程中，应优先选择环境条件适宜的造林区域，并进行近自然管理方式以提升其生态系统服务功能。

关键词: 遥感, 激光雷达, 植树造林, 冠层结构, 森林高度

Hao Bai, Asadilla Yusup, Yanpei Guo, Kai Cheng, Xiuzhi Chen, Jing Liu, Shengli Tao. Spaceborne LiDAR reveals 3D structural differences between natural forests and tree plantations in China[J]. J Plant Ecol, 2026, 19(4): 0-.

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Spaceborne LiDAR reveals 3D structural differences between natural forests and tree plantations in China

基于星载激光雷达评估中国天然林与人工林的三维结构差异

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